* Developing strong links to community support networks (Bohn, 1998; Valencia & Van Hoorn, 1999).

* Equipping shelters with appropriate grooming aids, toys and reading

material for children and adults that reflects ethnic diversity.

* Providing shelters with food familiar and appealing to individuals from diverse background (Sorenson, 1996; Torres, 1998.

* Presence of workers, advocates, or volunteers of similar ethnicity/background (Bohn, 1998; Merchant, 2000).

* Addressing communication needs.

* Shelters, as well as other institutions, are often unable to provide services or assistance in the preferred language of ethnic minority women (Sorenson, 1996; Root, 1996; Pressman, 1994). Limited English-speaking skills inhibit disclosure and limits the amount of help a victim may seek from police, hospital staff, shelter personnel, or victim advocates (Thomas, 2000).

* Bilingual programs have been developed that overcome these barriers (Valencia & Van Hoorn, 1999).

* Hispanic, Asian, and American Indian women reportedly prefer intervention/treatment personnel to ask directly about domestic violence. They viewed queries and discussions that took place in private and supportive environments more positively. These strategies were seen as contributing to disclosure despite community and cultural taboos (Rodriquez, Bauer, Florez-Ortiz & Szkupinski-Quiroga, 1998; Bohn, 1998).

* Recent immigrants may fear reporting violence due to INS (Immigration Naturalization Services) involvement and/or deportation.

* A belief that she is dependent on her husband for a green card is an obstacle to leaving an abusive relationship (Merchant, 2000).

* Recent immigrants often lack knowledge about legal rights and assistance resources (Root, 1996; Sorenson, 1996; Pressman, 1994). Shelters that assist in obtaining legal services, particularly those related to immigration status, increase the likelihood that an eligible woman will be able to leave an abusive relationship without jeopardizing her immigration status.

* Undocumented immigrants (Sorenson, 1996; Holtzman, 1994; Pressman, 1994) do not perceive shelters that check or require citizenship as options.

* Immigration may result in the loss of social controls monitoring family activities and leading to increased family violence (Hampton, et. al., 1998; Chester, Robin, Koss, Lopez, & Goldman, 1994). Cultural attitudes may be rigidly observed to maintain a sense of stability and may include patriarchal sex roles, taboos on communicating about infidelity, sexuality, and violence (Sorenson, 1996).

* Many refugee women of color have experienced the violence and trauma of repressive regimes, and have been particularly vulnerable to sexual violence. Their experience of and reaction to intimate partner violence must be understood in light of exposure to the use of violence by legitimized authority to maintain control. These experiences may result in increased vulnerability to PTSD and depression.

* The unique experiences of women refugees may also affect self-confidence and trust and disclosure and action.

* The additional stress of resettlement in a new culture compounds reactions to prior exposure to violence (Merchant, 2000).

* Women involved in resettlement programs, who seek IPV services, should be screened carefully for these issues (Holtzman, 1994; Pressman, 1994).

* Acculturation level (knowledge of and comfort with host culture) may influence women's attitudes, assertiveness, and responses to domestic violence and rape.

* Men may feel powerless and out of control in the new community. This can affect the adherence to and acceptance of cultural/ social norms governing male/female relations and family roles (Sorenson, 1996; Pressman, 1994).

It is theorized that male refugees use domestic violence as a way to re-establish control and power (Thomas, 2000).

* There may be unique stresses, such as increased intergenerational conflict that can increase family violence (Sorenson, 1996; Pressman, 1994).

* Economic resources to leave relationships that are violent/abusive

* Economic or social reliance on the perpetrator, family and/or community of theperpetrator. These may be due to the desire to complete the citizenship application process, issues of employment due to immigration status, level of education, and English facility.

* Access to transportation or financial ability to travel beyond the neighborhood to seek shelter, services, etc. (Merchant, 2000; Valencia & Van Hoorn, 1999; Sorenson, 1996; Root, 1996;).

* Limited research has suggested the importance of employment counseling, job training, child care assistance, food, housing assistance and legal aid for women of color (Merchant, 2000; Valencia & Van Hoorn, 1999; Bohn, 1998; Sullivan & Rumptz, 1994; Rimonte, 1989).

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