Multicultural Issues: Barriers to Research on Violence against Women in Communities of Color

Vetta Sanders Thompson, Ph.D.
University of Missouri, St. Louis

Communities of color comprise approximately 29% of the American population (African American, 12.3%; American Indian/Alaska Native, .9%; Asian American/Pacific Islander, 3.7%; and Latino/a, 12.5%) and by 2050 that number will increase to 49% (U.S. Bureau of Census, 2000). While the research on violence against women of color has increased, these population estimates indicate that it does not reflect the current or growing diversity of the American population.

To date, research and data have focused primarily on African American women, with Hispanics increasingly included. Recent reviews have noted the lack of research on intimate violence among Asian American women. National crime statistics typically classify individuals as Black, White and "Other" making it difficult to obtain data on non-African American communities of color (Hampton, Carrillo, and Kim, 1998). Future studies must be more sensitive to multicultural issues and concerns. More of the same type of research previously conducted in communities of color will not assist in intervention, prevention and/or policy development.

Ethnic Identifiers

• The use of ethnic/racial identifiers must be refined. Prior research has failed to address the significant diversity of communities of color. The use of overly broad categories, such as Non-White, Hispanic, Asian, etc., fails to address the significant cultural and social variation of these communities. For example, the designation Asian American represents 40 ethnic groups, speaking 30 different languages. American Indian is a category that consists of hundreds of tribes with different histories, languages and practices (Chambers, et al., 1998). The influence and interaction of nationality, tribal affiliation, class, and socio-economic status etc. with race/ethnicity should be examined (Sorenson, 1996; Hampton, Carrillo & Kim, 1998).
• Researchers make the designation process (participant vs. researcher designation) explicit.
• Researchers often use race, ethnicity and culture interchangeably although these are not synonymous terms. Which of the variables/issues is under study must be clear in each study of violence against women of color (Sorenson, 1996).

Acculturation

• Acculturation is a term, which refers to the acquisition of the cultural patterns, i.e. norms, language, and behavior of the dominant society.  
• This is an important variable to study when immigrant, refugee, or ethnic minority communities are included in research on violence against women. The adherence to or influence of country or origin versus host country values, beliefs, or attitudes may affect the questions to be asked, how they are asked, and/or responses to questions. Research that considers the level of acculturation may provide information on the unique stress and pressures of the process that contribute to violence against women in communities of color (Root, 1996; Hampton, et al. 1998).

Immigration/Status

• There has been little systematic research on violence against women that examines immigration and refugee status. The unique life experiences and situations of immigrants and refugees, as well as their membership in traditionally under studied groups (current descriptions of immigration patterns indicate that 34% are of Asian and 34% Latin American descent) makes examination of immigration and refugee status imperative. The impact of the requirement to adjust to a new culture is important to our understanding of domestic violence in these communities.
• Issues to be addressed include immigration status (e.g., refugee or immigrant), generation from immigration, and years of residence in the host country (Sorenson, 1996; Root, 1996; Ho, 1990).

Measurement/Assessment Issues

• It is important to consider the impact of using measures that excluded non-whites in their development. This practice serves to support notions of the European American experience as the norm rather than a comparison point (Sorenson, 1996).
• The quality of measure, survey, and interview translations is a concern. Minimally, the process should involve translation and back translation to assure word consistency (Pernice, 1994).
• Interviews or assessments conducted only in English limit our knowledge of violence against women of color. Samples may necessarily exclude recent immigrants; refugees and other monolingual households important to our understanding of violence against women of color (Hampton, et. al. 1998; Root, 1996).
• The use of interpreters, while increasing the ability to include non-English speaking participants, requires establishing guidelines for interpreter selection, interaction with participants, and interpretation method. Researchers must understand and acknowledge biases in the data introduced by use of interpreters (Pernice, 1994).
• The sampling techniques selected should be sensitive to the possibility of excluding segments of communities of color. One example is the use of random digit dialing, which is biased against households without telephones. This is more of a problem in ethnic minority communities, which experience higher rates of poverty (Hampton et al., 1998). The mobility of some refugee and immigrant populations becomes relevant if surveys or questionnaires are mailed (Pernice, 1994).
• Who collects data and how, must be addressed with cultural sensitivity. Cultural barriers may necessitate greater inclusion of researchers or research assistants of similar ethnic/cultural background. This may limit biases in responding by increasing trust, comfort, and confidence (Pernice, 1994; Root, 1996).
• Privacy when asking questions related to violence against women will be critical in communities where cultural and social norms dictate that women do not discuss sex and/or sanctions are expected if rape or abuse are disclosed (Root, 1996; Hampton, et al., 1998).
  

 Cultural Concerns

Data on a variety of cultural issues will be useful in policy, intervention, and planning efforts. Future research must acknowledge and develop methodology that better addresses these cultural issues:

• The impact of the etiquette demands of a culture on recruitment and participation.

• The nature of male-female relationships, such as male domination and privilege, and women viewed as male property.
• Issues considered private and taboo for public disclosure, such as sexuality, family discord, and rape.
• The roles and expectations of women in the community, i.e. maintaining harmony, requirements to be strong, self-sacrificing, responsible for family, and maintaining family ties, etc.
• Responsibility to community, i.e. ancestor image, loyalty to ethnic/racial identity and community, and the desire to avoid shaming the family and community (Root, 1996; Pressman, 1994; Ho, 1990).

Resources:

African American Mental Health Research Center. Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan, 426 Thompson, Rm.5118, Ann Arbor, MI 48106, 313-763-0045.

National Research Center on Asian American Mental Health. University of California, Davis, Department of Psychology, Davis, CA 95616, 916-752-1400.

National Center for American Indian and Alaska Native Research. University of Colorado Health Sciences Center, Department of Psychiatry, 4455 East Twelfth Avenue, A011-13, Denver, CO 80220, 303-315-9232.

References

Chambers, E. D. , Siegel, C., Haugland, G., Aponte, C., Bank, R., Blackshear, R., Chow, J., & Grantham, R. (1998). Cultural Competence Performance Measures for Managed Behavioral Healthcare Programs. Washington, D. C.: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center for Mental Health Services.

Hampton, R., Carrillo, R. and Kim, J. (1998). Violence in communities of color. In R. Carillo & J. Tello (Eds.) Family Violence and Men of Color: Healing the Wounded Male Spirit. New York: Springer Publishing Company.

Ho, C. K. (1990). An analysis of domestic violence in Asian American communities: A multicultural approach to counseling (pp.129 –150). In Brown & M. P. Root (Eds.) Diversity and Complexity in Feminist Therapy. New York: Haworth Press, Inc.

Pernice, R. (1994). Methodological issues in research with refugees and immigrants. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 25, 207-213.

Pressman, B. (1994). Violence against women: Ramifications of gender, class and race inequality. In Mirkin, M. P. (Ed.). Women in Context: Toward a Feminist Reconstruction of Psychotherapy. New York: Guilford Press.

Root, M.P. P. (1996) Women of color and traumatic stress in "Domestic Captivity: Gender and Race as Disempowering Statuses". In Marsella A. Freidman, M. S., Gerrity, E. T. and Scurfield, R. M. (Ed). Ethnocultural Aspects of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Issues, Research and Clinical Applications. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association

Sorenson, S. B. (1996). Violence against women: Examining ethnic differences and commonalties. Evaluation Review, 20, 123 – 145.

U. S. Bureau of the Census (2000). General Demographic Characteristics 2000: 2000 Census of Population and Housing. www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/index.htm/